Max Webers Concepts Of Social Behaviour

Max Webers Concepts Of Social Behaviour Since the Enlightenment, social scientists tried to use philosophical concepts to understand the social world, and one of the concepts is epistemology which means the study of knowledge. Above this, there are two distinct approaches, positivism and interpretivism. The first one focuses on objective knowledge, as universal truth of the social world, that is to say knowledge be gained through observation. The modern academic discipline of sociology began with the studying of Emile Durkheim, who is an extremely important French sociologist and the founding father of positivism. He pointed out the social sciences are a logical extension of the natural sciences into the land of human behavior, and insisted that they may keep the same objectivity, rationalism, and approach to causality(Wacquant, 1992). The other approach called interpretivism, which is also known as antipositivism. In contrast to positivism, interpretivism focuses on subjective knowledge, it means that knowledge is built i n the mind, and affected by personal experience. In addition, studying humans subjective experiences may cause the obtainment of knowledge. Max Weber was a key proponent of interpretivism, arguing for the study of social action through interpretive ways, based on understanding the purpose and meaning that individuals attach to their own actions (Macionis, 2012). Above these two founding fathers of sociology, the theories and methods are relatively different. Therefore, this essay will account the comparison and contact about their theories and methods to make a better understanding. Finally, there are four sections in this paper, section one and two will describe the detailed theories and methods supported by Durkheim and Weber respectively. The comparisons and the contacts will in section 3. Emile Durkheims theory and method Auguste Comte effectively sought to extend and apply the scientific method found in the natural sciences to the social sciences, this sociological positivism influence on Durkheims thought (Calhoun, 2002). According to Comte, two of theories are developed by Durkheim which are social fact and suicide method. 2.1 Social Fact A social fact is every way of acting, fixed or not, capable of exercising on the individual an external constraint; or again, every way of acting which is general throughout a given society, while at the same time existing in its own right independent of its individual manifestations(Durkheim, 1895, pp.13). For Durkheim, sociology was the science of social facts. By definition, social fact is that social structures that exist independently of the individual. In this theory, the key point is social structures which include institutions, traditions and beliefs, and patterns of behavior (Dictionary of the Social Sciences). Durkheims work around this, and argued that a social fact must be sought among the antecedent social facts and not among the states of the individual consciousness (Durkheim, 1895, pp.13). That is to say, social fact is an independent existence greater and more objective than the activities of the individuals that combine society. Though such study, sociology could de termine whether a given society is healthy or pathological, and seek social reform to negate organic breakdown. In his study social fact is not equal to social phenomenon, the studying of social phenomenon is not a persons subjective activity, but it is a kind of objective existence, and the social fact once happens, it will affect the individuals in society. 2.2 Suicide method Durkheim also attempted to find out whether human behavior was caused by social structures, rather than an individuals mental formal. Among his researches, his seminal monograph, Suicide (1897), was published. In Suicide (1897), Durkheim explores the different suicide rates among Protestants and Catholics, discussing that stronger social control like Catholics lead to lower suicide rates. As Durkheims researcher, Catholic society has normal levels while Protestant society has low levels. Overall, suicide rates are not caused by non-social factors, such as race, genetics, mental disorder, climate, season of the year, in addition, suicide rates are caused by social factors, such as religious faith, marital status, employment, and sudden change in income (Calhoun, 2002). Thus Durkheim treated suicide as a social fact, explaining there are such things as social facts that influence an individuals behaviour. In Durkheims though, suicide is not only the collection of personal behavior, it has the feature model of this phenomenon. In spirit of its limitations, Durkheims studying on suicide has influenced supporters of control theory, also it is often supposed as a classic sociological study. The theory founded modern positivism and served to decide social science from psychology and political philosophy (Poggi, 2000). 2.3 Method using With positivism, social scientists started to import or borrow views, assumptions and methods of research from physics, chemistry, and particularly anatomy. In the methodology, Durkheim also developed the functional analysis of sociological research principles. In his book, Rules of the Sociological Method (1895), when a society is unchanging it could be affirmed as being healthy and normal; when a society is in opposition it could be understood as abnormal. This description is similar as anatomy, when all the structures in the body are healthy, the body is healthy and normal; when one organ does not work, the whole body is affected and its behaviour is abnormal. In addition, researchers would need to exclude the emotional factors, moral judgment, and prejudices interference, and stand on the standpoint of neutrality. From the social fact with stability, the description of the phenomenon is scientific (Allan, 2005). Max Webers theory and method Different from Durkheim, the key theory is called Verstehen which is the interpretive understanding of social action, and though this studying, ideal types is the main method Weber used. 3.1 Verstehen Verstehen is a German word; in general it is in the situation of German philosophy and social sciences. Verstehen involves an understanding of what someone is thinking, which needs an understanding of the culture that individuals live in. Weber thought of sociology as a science of social behavior. He believed that studying why individuals do the things they do is the basic foundation of sociology, this is the concept he termed Verstehen. In addition, He argued that sociologists should not just study a group of people but also try to improve an empathetic understanding for the individuals in that group (Udehn, 2001). There is a phrase which is put yourself in his shoes. This is the same as what Verstehen describe: developing an understanding of social action from the insiders point of view in order to better understand the exchanges within a group and the groups determination. This, in turn, helps to describe how groups of people make sense of the world around them, how they fit into society as a whole, and how theyve helped society evolve over time(Udehn, 2001). Weber put value to understanding and meaning of key elements not just with perception or consideration with the individual but also the creation of systematic and rigorous research. The aim is to identify human behavior and understanding them as observable events leading us to believe that it not only delivers for a great explanation for human behavior but also for group interactions. The meaning attached needs to include constraints and limitations and analyze the motivation for action. Weber thought that this gives the sociologist a benefit above a natural scientist because We can accomplish something which is never attainable in the natural sciences, namely the subjective understanding of the action of the component individuals (Weber, 1968, p. 15). 3.2 Method using One of the methods Weber used to study his objects of analysis was ideal types. It means an abstract summary of the common features of complex social phenomena. For Weber, one of many subjective basics which certainly discriminate sociology from natural science is social science depends on the construction of hypothetical concepts in the abstract. Therefore, ideal type is a subjective division in social theory. Weber wrote: An ideal type is formed by the one-sided accentuation of one or more points of view and by the synthesis of a great many diffuse, discrete, more or less present and occasionally absent concrete individual phenomena, which are arranged according to those one-sidedly emphasized viewpoints into a unified analytical construct (Shils Finch, 1997).While opposition supporters of the ideal type including normal type theory supporters. Some sociologists consider that, ideal type more prone to extreme phenomena and ignore the connection, it is difficult to display how the v arieties and the elements into the whole social system theory. The comparisons and the contacts On the basis of theoretical background and the logical starting point, Durkheim and Weber inherited and developed the traditional social theory of two methods in the study: positivism and interpretivism, and laid the basic methodology character for future generations of sociological research. Durkheim treated social facts as its research objection of sociology. Compared to Webers social action, is the macro level. From this point Durkheims theory of society is existent, while Webb argues that only individuals exist, only explain the understanding of human social action, understand the meaning behind, and finally makes a causal explanation. This is the whole process of sociological research. Durkheims sociology theory is positivism. It used the objectivity of social facts as the object of study, and thought society and nature are identical in nature. As the objective necessity of domination, society and natural phenomena are the same, which determines its research methods must be used the empirical research method in the natural sciences, through observation, such as experiments, comparisons, and test methods (Durkheim, 1895, pp.13). Webers sociological understanding to social action is same as the research object, and argued that the method of natural science in special effect is difficult to apply social science research, it cannot explain human behavior with subjective meaning hidden behind the value and significance (Weber, 1968, p. 15). Weber thought that researchers should focus on experience, at the same time, putting on the same subject to each others as their own thinking and evaluation, its distinctive feature is the emotion in the thinking object and thinking process input. Therefore, researchers make a reasonable explanation about social fact though changing the role the subjective motives of others social action. But the study method of Weber and Durkheims theory still has something in common. In a sense, Weber thought methods in social science research should establish the ideal type (Shils Finch, 1997). He realized that the research object of social science has unique characteristics and subjective, and if researchers want to keep the absolute objectivity is not an easy job. Ideal type refers to a series concept system in sociological research in which scholars generally recognized and accepted, so that it can reduce or even avoid the sociological study of arbitrariness and disunity. Researchers in research processes must keep value objectively themselves, and eliminate their additional influence and intervention on the object of study. Similarly, Durkheim also emphasized that the fact more important than the conception; the existence precedes the essence; and observation of the phenomenon should be eliminated the subjective emotion (Allan, 2005).. Above all, the social fact and social action are two different sized concepts, which can be said a relationship between containing and being contained. That is to say, Webers social action is more specific than Durkheims social fact .Because social facts and macroscopic reasons, Durkheim research object in the theory of sociology is the objective existence. But Webers social science research should be specific, individual existence, it will be in the society of human action as the research object, to explain the understanding of it, and to know the secret the hidden behind the specific social action, in order to make the causality of the final paper. Weber also will provide two major tasks of sociology as the explanatory understanding and causality of social action description. In this way, the two major factions in social science research positivism and interpretivism, make differences between increasingly bigger, thus it caused the contradiction between both sides. Conclusion In conclusion, this essay described and analyzed Durkheims and Webers theories and methods. Both of them played important roles in social science history, and they have big influence on social science. Their theories and methods are researched and used by many scholars. After comparison, it could be seen that their ideas about social science are quite different. Durkheims theories based on positivism. It used the objectivity of social facts as the object of study, and thought society and nature are identical in nature. Durkheim thought that structures that exist independently of the individual. Webers theories based on individuals existence, he only explained the understanding of human social action, understood the meaning behind, and finally made a causal explanation. Weber thought that verstehen involves an understanding of what someone is thinking, which needs an understanding of the culture that person lives in. But, the contrast of their ideas is that the study method of Weber and Durkheims theory still has something in common. The difference of social research methods found by the two fathers cannot say which one is better, because both of them in the field of social science had gained the success that attracted worldwide attention, and each method found a reasonable breakthrough for sociological research. Because of this differences, which makes the social science research shows a kind of mutual opposition and mutual encouragement and supplement of the state. Society science research is infinite in the future, each historical giant higher later is through the shoulders of giants before. But social science research is still arduous task, social scientist should summarize the experience of the former step by step, in order to continuous the development and progress of science which is a heavy and meaningful subject to society.

Empirical Literature Article Review of Leadership Ethics Essay

The opportunity to evaluate original research serves as one of the many foundations to both scholarly writing and research (Grand Canyon University, 2013). Therefore, to enhance this process I will critique empirical research articles for the purpose of demonstrating the effectiveness in understanding leadership ethics. So, using the literature presented within in the works of â€Å"Predictors of Ethical Code Use and Ethical Tolerance in the Public Sector† by Neal Ashkanasy, Sarah Falkus, and Victor Callan along with â€Å"Advancing Ethics in Public Organizations: The Impact of an Ethics Program on Employees’ Perceptions and Behaviors in a Regional Council† by Itai Beeri, Rachel Dayan, Eran Vigoda-Gadot, and Simcha Werner, and finally, â€Å" An Empirical Study of Leader Ethical Values, Transformational and Transactional Leadership, and Follower Attitudes Toward Corporate Social Responsibility† by Kevin Groves and Michael LaRocca comparisons will be made on the relevance and need for research purposes. In comparison, the authors of each study utilize ethical behaviors for the purpose of comparing relationships, perceptions, and beliefs associated with measures of ethical practice. Furthermore, reasonable justification for conducting the research presented in each study is outlined as evidence from the posed research questions and is validated within the results of each piece of literature reviewed. Posed Research Questions Relating the Authors in the Comparison Similarly, the literature within each study focused on ethical practice and how it used to enhance behavior of individuals within organizations. However, assertions within the scope of the posed research questions present relevant generalizations for each study. For example, Ashkanasy, Falkus, and Callan (2000) focused on variables that formulated predictive roles of organizational, individual, group, and contextual levels for utilizing formal codes of conduct. These variables were developed to serve as predictors of ethical tolerance as a result of formal code use. Whereas, organizational commitment (OC), organizational citizenship behavior (OCB), and quality of work life (QWL) are the basis in which Beeri, Dayan, Vigoda-Gadot, and Werner (2013) perceive positive relationships are built as ethical resources are generated. Hence, these three areas promote awareness of ethical leadership and decision making in addition to the ethics code. Further, Groves and LaRocca (2011) incorporate the notion of corporate social responsibility by modeling both transformational and transactional leadership styles. Here, the idea is leaders with deontological values of ethics will be perceived as modeling transformational leadership, while leaders with teleological values of ethics are perceived as modeling transactional leadership (Groves et al. , 2011). Although each study assessed various ethical practices, each displays similarities in presenting study results as a means of validating posed questions of research. Sample Populations The results recorded from evaluations used in the sample populations’ highlighted evidence relevant to that of measures needed to verify theory associated with ethical practice. Hence, each study presented the results through a form of statistical analysis in which various test groups within the field of research were used. Moreover, similar methods were incorporated to assess the results of the respondents within all three studies. Ashkanasy, Falkus, and Callan’s Approach This evaluation involved mailed questionnaires to public sector employees in one State of Australia. The principal method of conducting this study was based on hierarchical regression, and addressed several factors such as: demographic measures, personal ethical values and attitudes, context and group-level variables, and organizational practices (pg. 245, 2000). Given the basis of evidence Ashkanasy, Falkus, and Callan (2000) used this method of analysis to assert that ethical decisions are more likely to be influenced by employees, versus the effect of group and individual variables. Beeri, Dayan, Vigoda-Gadot, and Werner’s Approach In lieu of the goal to test the relationships between ethics and performance within governments locally, Beeri et al. , (2013) used questionnaires to evaluate the long term effects of an ethics program on employees’ perceptions, and the behavior in one council of an Israeli region. This as a result, stems from awareness of ethical codes, and inclusion of employees in the ethical decision making process. Groves and LaRocca’s Approach Groves and LaRocca (2011) utilized voluntary community-based leadership programs that targeted educational values on ethics. The leaders of these community based programs were emailed a link with instructions for participation with an online questionnaire. The assumption here was that training on both transformational and transactional leadership, in addition to ethical decision making and CSR would now be implemented. Results Analysis All in all, the results displayed by the analysis of each study correspond to the overall effort of the posed research. For example, supported results aligned with study hypotheses, but signified that certain mechanisms underlie the criterion for each of the tested variables on different levels according to Ashkanasy, Falkus, and Callan (2000). Whereas, Beeri et al. , (2013) report a greater awareness in ethical codes and decision making along with increased organizational commitment is achieved as a result of positive ethical leadership. And finally, Groves and LaRocca (2011) correlated their findings with the original prediction that transformational leadership alone was aligned with the beliefs of followers in view of the corporate social responsibility of stakeholders. Conclusion Study Limitations of Articles To fully appreciate the level of understanding needed to evaluate literature of empirical research, a description of the methodology, research questions and an analysis of results must be presented to determine the validity of the overall analysis. And as such, each study discussed within the contents of this paper has been successful in delivering on all areas to support research efforts. However, there were areas that pose limitations to future research efforts for all three studies. For example, the use of questionnaires may not represent a true assessment of the respondent’s beliefs (Ashkanasy et al. , 2000). Also, issues surrounding anonymity can urface when responding to questions concerning ethical climate (Beeri et al. , 2013). And further, influences set by both common source and common method can stimulate bias in lieu of follower values of CSR (Groves & LaRocca, 2011). For future development of the practice The results yield an overall influence within organizations that build on variables to increase ethical standards. However, there are yet underlying issues for democratic organizations that stress the importance of ethics, integrity, and fairness (Beeri et al. , 2013). And recommendations for further study are necessary to promote the continuous effort of influencing follower perceptions toward ethical commitments.

Cultural Diversity in Nursing Essay

Introduction Cultural diversity in nursing is concept that is derived from nursing and other cross-cultural health-related disciplines such as psychology, sociology and anthropology. Culture is simply used to refer to the belief systems held by groups of people in the society. Therefore, cultural diversity is defined as, â€Å"the differences between people based on a shared ideology and valued set of beliefs, norms, customs, and meanings evidenced in a way of life† (Lowe & Archibald, 2009). Culture influences individual’s behavior, perceptions and also interpretations. Therefore, integrating culture in healthcare is critical. This is in efforts to create a healthcare system that is sensitive to the needs of patients. For that reason, this essay focuses on cultural diversity in nursing by looking at the background of the issue, current trends, significance to nursing profession, controversies and strategies for dealing with cultural diversity. Background and Historical Development of Cultural Diversity in Nursing As defined earlier, cultural diversity refers to, â€Å"the differences between people based on a shared ideology and valued set of beliefs, norms, customs, and meanings evidenced in a way of life† (Lowe & Archibald, 2009). In the healthcare system, there are people from different cultural groups. For instance, we have people from different racial groups, ethnicity, tribe, religion and so forth. This includes both the providers and the patients. To a great extent, our culture defines our practice. The concept of cultural diversity in nursing was first established in 1955 by Madeleine Leininger, one of the pioneers of transcultural nursing. As an area of knowledge, cultural diversity in nursing, also known as transcultural nursing, was aimed at equipping nurses with knowledge that  will help them in delivering culturally appropriate nursing care (Lowe & Archibald, 2009). Madeleine Leininger believed in the diversity and universality of cultural care. For that reason, he established transcultural nursing from the year 1955 to 1975. Madeleine refined the concept of transcultural nursing through the â€Å"sunrise model†. The expansion of the concept continued even after 1975 to present. In 1966, the University of Colorado started transcultural nursing courses. The concept was later established internationally in 1983 (Lowe & Archibald, 2009). Current Trends in Cultural Diversity Currently, there are several issues trending in regard to cultural diversity. Among them is the slow and episodic movement towards cultural diversity in nursing. According to Lowe and Archibald (2009) in the article entitled, â€Å"cultural diversity: The intention of nursing,† the nursing profession was since the introduction of cultural diversity in 1986 focused on provision of cultural-sensitive care. The authors express their concern that despite the continued cultural growth witnessed in the country, the same does not reciprocate inn nursing. The progress in nursing towards creating cultural diversity in nursing has been slow and episodic. Hence, there is need to put efforts in order to expand cultural-sensitive practices in nursing. Another trending issue in respect to creation of a cultural diversified healthcare system is promotion of diversity. According to Pilkington, Singh, Prescod and Buettgen (2013) youth mentorship provides an important avenue for promoting cultural diversity. Through mentoring the youth, they will be equipped with relevant knowledge regarding diversity which will result in creation of a society which embraces diversity. Significance of Cultural Diversity Cultural diversity is a crucial concept in healthcare. Our current society is made of people from different ethnic, racial, religious and tribal groups. All these groups have their own culture. It is worth to mention that our culture affects how we interpret information, our perceptions and even  behavior. These aspects of culture make it important in nursing practice. The patient is always the center focus of care. Hence, the nurse is required to be sensitive to the needs of the patient. It is only through consideration of patient needs that the nurse is capable of establishing a strong therapeutic relationship with the patient. Establishing a strong relationship of trust with patients is important in involving the patients fully in their care (Pilkington, Singh, Prescod & Buettgen, 2013). Among the needs of patients are the spiritual needs. Nurses in some cases will handle patients from different faiths. Under such cases, the nurse might not be aware of some of the spiritual needs of these patients. For instance, let us take a Christian nurse and a Muslim patient. Muslims are supposed to pray five times in a day, and cleanse themselves with water every time they visit a washroom. The failure of the nurse to identify such things may hinder creation of trust between the nurse and the patient. In other words, the nurse will fail to deliver culturally-competent care (Lowe & Archibald, 2009). Therefore, providing culturally competent care is important in efforts to increase patient satisfaction, which translates to improved patient outcomes which signify improvement in quality of nursing care. Impact of Cultural Diversity in Nursing Profession The issue of cultural diversity greatly influences nursing profession and professional nursing practice. Nursing as a profession has for many years struggled to be seen as a field which is aimed at providing optimal care to the public. The profession is determined to be viewed in the light of universality, meaning it embraces people from all cultures. Therefore, by integrating cultural diversity, nursing profession will be recognized and respected in all parts of the world (Lowe & Archibald, 2009). In the nursing practice, cultural diversity is paramount. Every healthcare facility and provider is determined to provide patient-centered care. This is due to the fact that among the six goals of healthcare is provision of  patient-centered care. In order to provide patient-centered care, it is important to understand all the needs of the patient. This includes the culture. The nurse should understand what food the patient takes or does not take his or her beliefs and dressing style, among others. By doing so, the nurse will gain the trust from the patient which is important in the care. Eventually, the patient is satisfied with the quality of care which results in improved patient outcomes (Pilkington, Singh, Prescod & Buettgen, 2013). Controversies Related to Nursing Despite the benefits associated with integration of cultural diversity in healthcare, there are some areas of this concept that have brought about some controversies. Some cultural beliefs or practice are in contrary with the goals of healthcare. For instance, there are some people based on their faith who refuse to take any medication or seek conventional treatment. Hence, under such cases there is a controversy on which way to handle the situation (Pilkington, Singh, Prescod & Buettgen, 2013). The other area of controversy is extreme faiths held by some people. In some cultures, some behaviors such as undressing before someone of opposite sex are considered immoral. Hence, when a nurse from an opposite gender s handling such a patient, there is always some controversy. Enhancing Cultural Diversity in Nursing As noted, cultural diversity is critical in nursing practice. Therefore, there is need to embrace this concept. In order to improve the progress towards establishing cultural competence in nursing, it is important to introduce courses on cultural diversity in nurse training curriculum (Pilkington, Singh, Prescod & Buettgen, 2013). Another way of promoting cultural diversity in nursing is through training nurses on the importance having diversity at workplace. In addition, recruitment of nurses from different cultures will help in enhancing diversity in nursing. My Position Personally, I support the establishment of cultural diversity in nursing. My  position is based on the benefits associated with establishment of this concept. Hence, enhancing cultural diversity is crucial in improving the quality of care (Pilkington, Singh, Prescod & Buettgen, 2013). Conclusion In conclusion, cultural diversity refers to â€Å"the differences between people based on a shared ideology and valued set of beliefs, norms, customs, and meanings evidenced in a way of life (Lowe & Archibald, 2009).† Cultural diversity in nursing is important in improving the quality of care. The concept of transcultural nursing was established in 1955 by Madeleine Leininger (Lowe & Archibald, 2009). American Nurses Association adopted the concept of cultural diversity in 1986. Currently, the progress of nursing profession towards establishment of culturally competent care is trending. Establishing a culturally competent nursing care is an important milestone in improving quality of care. References Lowe, J. & Archibald C. (2009).Cultural diversity: The intention of nursing. Nursing Forum Volume 44, No. 1. Pilkington, F., Singh, D., Prescod C. & Buettgen, A. (2013). Inclusive Mosaic: Promoting Diversity in Nursing through Youth Mentorship. International Journal of Nursing Education Scholarship Vol. 10(1): 1–10

Quotes of Encouragement for Women

Fight off the feeling of helplessness. You are a woman! You have the power to create, nurture, and mold. Your voice may be soft, but it carries a sense of determination. Your shoulders may be delicate, but they can carry the burden of a family with ease. Dont underestimate your strengths and abilities. When the time is right, you can prove your mettle to the world. Quotes of Encouragement for Women Read these encouraging quotes for women and learn to believe in yourself. These quotes can help you overcome any challenge that hinders your growth. St. Teresa of AvilaHowever softly we speak, God is near enough to hear us. Anais NinThere came a time when the risk to remain tight in the bud was more painful than the risk it took to blossom. Havelock EllisCharm is a womans strength just as strength is a mans charm. Indira GandhiPeople with clenched fists can not shake hands. Alice WalkerThe most common way people give up their power is by thinking they dont have any. Anais NinDreams are necessary to life. Pearl BaileyPeople see God every day. They just dont recognize him. Diane MariechildA woman is the full circle. Within her is the power to create, nurture and transform. Grandma MosesLife is what we make it, always has been, always will be. Edgar Watson HoweA man has his clothes made to fit him; a woman makes herself fit her clothes.